Challenges of Ecotourism in Antarctica Essay Example for Free

Challenges of Ecotourism in Antarctica Essay Antarctica is one of the largest and most fragile environments on earth. It is rare and unique, and few people get the opportunity to visit such an extraordinary place. Antarctica’s unique environment and climate sets it apart from other tourist destinations. However, the hostile wilderness creates many challenges for ecotourism. There is a concern regarding the high concentration of tourists and their environmental impact at the few landing sites available. The real debate is whether tourism can benefit, or threaten the conservation of Antarctica. Ecotourism, in its early historical origins has been closely linked to nature – oriented tourism. For example, Laarman and Durst, in reference to ecotourism, defined it as a nature tourism where a traveler is interested and drawn to a destination because of its features and natural history. The visit combines education, recreation, and often adventure’ (Laarman and Durst 1987:5). Defining ecotourism is not easily done, difficulties defining it are mainly due to the multidimensional nature of the definitions, and the fact that each dimension involved represents a continuum of possibilities (Blamey 1997). The Ecotourism Society defines ecotourism as ‘responsible travel to natural areas, which conserves the environment and improves the welfare of local people’ (Western 1993:8). Ceballos-Lascurain (1987: 14) defines ecotourism as ‘traveling to relatively undisturbed or uncontaminated natural areas with the specific objective of studying, admiring, and enjoying the scenery and its wild plants and animals, as well as any existing cultural manifestations (both past and present) found in these areas’. The tourism industry of Antarctica is often overlooked as a factor of environmental degradation. It is important that more attention is drawn to assessing the current state of this large continent. Beck (1994) states that, tourists, scientists, and other visitors to Antarctica have tremendous environmental impacts. Tourist shipping can pose an environmental risk, and there is good reason for concern. There have been several marine accidents in recent years. There was the case of an Argentinean supply vessel Bahia Paraiso, which ran a ground on January 28, 1989, spilling 600 metric tones of fuel into Antarctica’s pristine waters (Culver 1991). Other environmental impacts include engine emissions that contribute to air pollution. The noise generated from outboard motors on inflatable zodiacs, turbulence created from tourist ships and the â€Å"grey water† sewage they emit also creates harmful effects. More responsibility is being demanded out of eco tourists visiting Antarctica. For example Salen Lindblad’s 164-passenger ship the Frontier Spirit has been reinforced, and also contains a sewage treatment plant, refrigerated waste storage area, and a special storage area for non-biodegradable waste (Cebellos-Lascurain 1996). Another main concern is in the peninsula region of Antarctica where there are several highly concentrated, high profile sites. The concentration of tourism activities leads to the potential for over visitation in these areas. A present study of Magellanic penguins demonstrates that human impact puts a great amount of stress on the species. Simple human presence can be physiologically stressful for breeding at nest sites (Fowler 1999). The Antarctic environment is very fragile and not used to human activities. However the study also found that birds exposed to high levels of tourists are not effected over time and concludes that as a result tourism should be concentrated to certain areas while others are kept off limits to human presence. People have been going to Antarctica for over 100 years. Prior to 1950, nearly all trips to Antarctica were either exploratory or scientific expeditions (Cessford 1997). As a result of human activity in the area there has been a connection with industrial, national and scientific programs. Human activity has also caused the development of alien microbes, fungi, plants, and animals. These â€Å"alien† species that are mostly European in origin exist on most of the sub – Antarctic islands and some even occur on the continent itself. These species in turn can have both a direct and indirect impact on the Antarctic ecosystem (Fenot 2004). It has only been recently that biologists have conducted any research into diseases of Antarctic wildlife to note the effects of human activity. These studies look at marine mammals and penguins for bacteria flora and pathogens (disease causing organisms). Blood tests for antibodies of a variety of species have also been taken to check for viral, bacterial, fungal and parasitic disease. A study conducted in the summer season of 2000/2001, Dr. Todhunter and Dr. Terris took swab collections of specimens from passengers’ boots aboard the Kapitan Khlebnikov, which led to tentative findings of a wide range of potential pathogens. In another study 233 fecal samples from 8 bird species were taken from 6 different penguin colonies, which are regularly visited by tourists. The samples were investigated for pathogens of potential human origin. No human related bacteria were found, which suggests that the tourism industry in the Antarctic region has achieved its goal of not introducing any pathogens so far. While the tourist season only ranges from October to April, currently tourism in Antarctica involves over 30 agencies, and 40,000 tourists per annum (Lambert 2005). Antarctica is the ultimate destination for anyone interested in natural history, but it also challenges the same people that visit to think about our responsibilities to all life on earth† (Lambert 2005). Tourists to Antarctica are most likely to fall in to the category of eco tourist, as there are no restaurants, theaters or art galleries, and the experience is about learning about and viewing one of the earth’s last untouched continent s. Boo (1990) states that for conservation management to succeed, tourism must be a tool to educate thus creating real benefits for a geological location. Although tourism and human contact on Antarctica is showing some negative impacts, it has also encouraged conservation efforts in the region. Another step towards the recognition of potential environmental impact is the creation of the IATTO (International Association of Antarctic Tour Operators). In 1991 seven tour operators active in Antarctica formed IATTO. It was created to act as a single organization. The goal of IATTO is to promote and practice safe environmentally responsible private-sector travel to the Antarctic. Currently there are 80 member organizations representing 14 countries. IATTO 2008) This environmental protocol designates Antarctica as a natural reserve devoted to peace and science and seeks to ensure human activities, such as tourism, have no adverse effects on the Antarctic environment, or on its scientific and aesthetic values. With a recent increase in the number of members in the IAATO it shows that companies are becoming more aware of the environmentally se nsitive concerns related to Antarctica and the importance of such an organization. The increase in membership does not necessarily mean that there has been a drastic increase in the number of tourists visiting Antarctica. All current Antarctica tour operators file yearly environmental impact assessments to their national authorities. There are few places on earth that have never been to war, where the environment is fully protected and scientific research has priority over anything else. (IAATO 2008) The Antarctic treaty can be accredited with the successful protection of Antarctica. Formed on June 23, 1961 the treaty covers the area south of 60 degrees latitude and consists of 46 countries. Its objectives are simple and unique, demilitarize Antarctica and make it a zone free of nuclear tests, and disposal of radioactive waste. As well as be used for peaceful purposes only (IAATO 2008). To promote international cooperation in the Antarctic and set aside disputes over territorial sovereignty. The treaty parties meet each year and have adopted over 300 recommendations and negotiated separate international agreements, of which 3 are still in use. These include: 1. The convention for the conservation of Antarctic seals which was established in 1972. 2. The convention for conservation of Antarctica marine living resources established in 1980. 3. The protocol on Environmental protection to the Atlantic Treaty established in 1991. These agreements and the original treaty provide the rules to govern all activities in relation to Antarctica. Collectively known as the Antarctica Treaty System (ATS). In conclusion it is apparent that Antarctica is a very fragile environment, and any kind of human involvement can pose great risks if the correct precautions are not taken. It is clear to me that eco tourism can benefit the great continent of Antarctica, those visiting become ambassadors as they learn about the importance of preservation. Boo (1990) explains that tourists become emotionally attached to an area and will contribute funds to preserve it. It is important for organizations like the IAATO to continue their promotion of safe and environmentally responsible travel to the Antarctic. Continued research is necessary to make sure that tourists as well as scientists leave as little of a human footprint as possible. Antarctica is a beautiful place on earth, and I believe that when people are educated about their impact on such a vulnerable area and regulations are put in place to protect the area that everyone should be able to experience the Antarctic continent in all of its magnificence.

Oliver Cromwell as a Hero or Villain Essay examples -- History Ireland

The aim of this essay, is to answer the long-awaited question 'Was Oliver Cromwell a hero or a villain? This question, is a hard one to answer. James Heath once said "His name and memory stink." In opposition, Samuel Pepys said "People look back and praise him." True? Or Not? This essay will argue Edmond Ludlow's words," How glorious, but then such betrayal!" Oliver Cromwell was neither a hero nor a villain. The evidence and opinions gathered will state, how he went from good to bad, and from bad to evil. Oliver Cromwell, was a puritan gentleman from Huntingdon. He was born on the 25th of April 1599, and brought up in a very wealthy family, and a high social class. Cromwell, was an MP for Huntingdon, from 1628-1629. He had no fighting experience then, and was very worried about the Roundhead army, at the battle of Edgehill. Cromwell then went home to Huntingdon, and began to train his own army. Cromwell was a magnificent soldier. He created a whole new army from scratch, and he trained his army, in a special and unique way. Cromwell would do anything to win his battles, and beat Prince Rupert and if it meant making a whole new army, than so be it. To do this, he picked his people of their ability, 'men of spirit', and not on their status. He did this believing that this was right, as they were doing Gods will. It also made the people happy, and so he continued doing so. He also paid the men. He paid them 12D a day, so that encouraged more men to stay. He was a strict commander, and his orders had to be obeyed. Also, he always chose the right moment in a battle to attack. Some local Roundheads, thought that Cromwell should have ... ...er, but he just did what he felt he had to do. One thing which I agree on, is that he could have gone about it a different way. Also, I agree in one thing that he said, and also believed in. That was that "The end justifies the Means." What he meant by that, was that no matter what happens, something good always comes out at the end, and it's the end outcome that really matters. The words that I will leave you with, are the words of one Richard Baxter, a parliamentarian. We are not sure whether we can trust these words or not, as being a parliamentarian, he would have been a bit sympathetic to Cromwell, but it's quite reasonable. "No man was better and worse spoken of than he, he meant honestly, and was pious till power corrupted him, he thinketh that the end being good and necessary, the necessary means cannot be bad"

The Return: Nightfall Chapter 25

Matt lunged at Damon in a rush that clearly demonstrated the skills that had gotten him a college football scholarship. He accelerated from utter stillness to a blur of motion, trying to tackle Damon, to bring him down. â€Å"Run,† he shouted, at the same instant.†Run!† Elena stood still, trying to come up with Plan A after this disaster. She had been forced to watch Stefan's humiliation at Damon's hands at the boardinghouse, but she didn't think she could stand to see this. But when she looked again, Matt was standing about a dozen yards from Damon, white-faced and grim, but alive and on his feet. He was preparing to rush Damon again. And Elena†¦couldn't run. She knew that it would probably be the best thing – Damon might punish Matt briefly but most of his attention would be turned to hunting her down. But she couldn't be sure. And she couldn't be sure that the punishment wouldn't kill Matt, or that he would be able to get away before Damon found her and had leisure time to think of him again. No, notthis Damon, pitiless and remorseless as he was. There must be some way – she could almost feel wheels spinning in her own head. And then she saw it. No, not that†¦ But what else was there to do? Matt was, indeed, rushing Damon again, and this time as he went for him, lithe and unstoppable and fast as a darting snake, she saw what Damon did. He simply sidestepped at the last moment, just when Matt was about to ram him with a shoulder. Matt's momentum kept him going, but Damon simply turned in place and faced him again. Then he picked up his damned pine branch. It was broken at the end where Matt had trampled it. Damon frowned at the stick, then shrugged, lifting it – and then both he and Matt stopped frozen. Something came sailing in from the sidelines to settle on the ground between them. It lay there, stirring in the breeze. It was a maroon and navy Pendleton shirt. Both of the boys turned slowly toward Elena, who was wearing a white lacy camisole. She shivered slightly and wrapped her arms around herself. It seemed unusually cold for this time of evening. Very slowly, Damon lowered the pine branch. â€Å"Saved by yourinamorata ,† he said to Matt. â€Å"I know what that means and it's not true,† Matt said. â€Å"She's my friend, not my girlfriend.† Damon just smiled distantly. Elena could feel his eyes on her bare arms. â€Å"So†¦on to the next step,† he said. Elena wasn't surprised. Heartsick but not surprised. Neither was she surprised to see, when Damon turned to look from her to Matt and back, a flash of red. It seemed to be reflected on the inside of his sunglasses. â€Å"Now,† he said to Elena. â€Å"I think we'll put you over there on that rock, sort of half reclining. But first – another kiss.† He looked back at Matt. â€Å"Get with the program, Matt; you're wasting time. First, maybe you kiss her hair, then she throws her head back and you kiss her neck, while she puts her arms around your shoulders†¦.† Matt,thought Elena. Damon had saidMatt . It had slipped out so easily, so innocently. Suddenly her entire brain, and her body, too, seemed to be vibrating as if to a single note of music, seemed to be flooded by an icy shower-bath. And what the note was saying was not shocking, because it was something that somehow, at a subliminal level, she already knew†¦. That's not Damon. This wasn't the person she had known for – was it really only nine or ten months? She had seen him when she was a human girl, and she had defied him and desired him in equal measure – and he had seemed to love her best when she was defying him. She had seen him when she was a vampire and had been drawn to him with all her being, and he had cared for her as if she were a child. She had seen him when she was a spirit, and from the afterlife she had learned a great deal. He was a womanizer, he could be callous, he drifted through his victims' lives like a chimera, like a catalyst, changing other people while he himself remained unchanging and unchanged. He mystified humans, confused them, used them – leaving them bewildered, because he had the charm of the devil. And never once had she seen him break his word. She had a rock-bottom feeling that this wasn't something that was a decision, it was so much a part of Damon, lodged so deep in his subconscious, that even he couldn't do anything to change it. He couldn't break his word. He'd starve first. Damon was still talking to Matt, giving him orders. â€Å"†¦and then take off her†¦Ã¢â‚¬  So what about his word to be her bodyguard, to keep her from harm? He was talking to her now. â€Å"So you know when to throw your head back? After he – â€Å" â€Å"Who are you?† â€Å"What?† â€Å"You heard me.Who are you? If you had really seen Stefan off and promised him to take care of me, none of this would have happened. Oh, you might be messing with Matt, but not in front of me. You're not – Damon's not stupid. He knows what a bodyguard is. He knows that watching Matt in pain hurts me as well. You're not Damon. Who†¦are†¦you?† Matt's strength and fast-as-a-rattlesnake speed hadn't done any good. Maybe a different approach would work. As Elena spoke, she had been very slowly reaching up to Damon's face. Now, with one motion, she pulled his sunglasses off. Eyes red as fresh new blood shone out at her. â€Å"What have you done?†she whispered. â€Å"What have you done to Damon?† Matt was out of the range of her voice but had been inching around, trying to get her attention. She wished fervently that Matt would just make a run for it himself. Here, he was just another way for this creature to blackmail her. Without seeming to move quickly, the Damon-thing reached down and snatched the sunglasses from her hand. It was too fast for her to resist. Then he seized her wrist in a painful grip. â€Å"This would be a lot easier on both of you if you'd cooperate,† he said casually. â€Å"You don't seem to realize what might happen if you make me angry.† His grip was forcing her down, forcing her to kneel. Elena decided not to let it. But unfortunately her body didn't want to cooperate; it sent urgent messages of pain to her mind, of agony, of burning, searing agony. She had thought that she could ignore it, could stand to let him break her wrist. She was wrong. At some point something in her brain blacked out completely, and the next thing she knew she was on her knees with a wrist that felt three times the right size and burned fiercely. â€Å"Human weakness,† Damon said scornfully. â€Å"It will get you every time†¦. You should know better than to disobey me, by now.† Not Damon,Elena thought, so vehemently that she was surprised the imposter didn't hear her. â€Å"All right,† Damon's voice continued above her as cheerfully as if he'd simply given her a suggestion. â€Å"You go sit on that rock, leaning backward, and Matt, if you'll just come over here, facing her.† The tone was of polite command, but Matt ignored it and was beside her already, looking at the finger marks on Elena's wrist as if he didn't believe them. â€Å"Matt stands up, Elena sits, or the opposite one gets the full treatment. Have fun, kiddies.† Damon had the palm-camera out again. Matt consulted Elena with his eyes. She looked at the imposter and said, enunciating carefully, â€Å"Go to hell, whoever you are.† â€Å"Been there, done that, bought the brimstone,† the not-Damon creature rattled off. He gave Matt a smile that was both luminescent and terrifying. Then he waggled the pine branch. Matt ignored it. He waited, his face stoic, for the pain to hit. Elena struggled up to stand by him. Side by side, they could defy Damon. Who seemed for a moment to be out of his mind. â€Å"You're trying to pretend you're not afraid of me. But you will be. If you had any sense, you would be now.† Belligerently, he took a step toward Elena.†Why aren't you afraid of me?† â€Å"Whoever you are, you're just an oversized bully. You've hurt Matt. You've hurt me. I'm sure you can kill us. But we're not afraid of bullies.† â€Å"You will be afraid.† Now Damon's voice had dropped to a menacing whisper. â€Å"Just wait.† Even as something was ringing in Elena's ears, telling her to listen to those last words, to make a connection – who did that sound like? – the pain hit. Her knees were knocked out by it. But she wasn't just kneeling now. She was trying to roll into a ball, trying to curl around the agony. All rational thought was swept from her head. She sensed Matt beside her, trying to hold her, but she could no more communicate with him than she could fly. She shuddered and fell to her side, as if having a seizure. Her entire universe was pain, and she only heard voices as if they came from far away. â€Å"Stop it!† Matt sounded frantic.†Stop it! Are you crazy? That'sElena , for God's sake! Do you want to kill her ?† And then the not-Damon-thing advising him mildly, â€Å"I wouldn't try that again,† but the only sound Matt made was a scream of primal rage. â€Å"Caroline!† Bonnie was raging, pacing back and forth in Stefan's room while Meredith did something else with the computer. â€Å"Howdare she?† â€Å"She doesn't dare try to attack Stefan or Elena outright – there's the oath,† Meredith said. â€Å"So she's thought this up to get at all of us.† â€Å"But Matt – â€Å" â€Å"Oh, Matt's handy,† Meredith said grimly. â€Å"And unfortunately there's the matter of the physical evidence on both of them.† â€Å"What do you mean? Matt doesn't – â€Å" â€Å"The scratches, my dear,† put in Mrs. Flowers, looking sad, â€Å"from your razor-toothed bug. The poultice I put on will have healed them so that they'll look like a girl's fingernail scratches – about now. And the mark it left on your neck†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Mrs. Flowers coughed delicately. â€Å"It looks like what in my day was called a  ¡Ã‚ ®love bite.' Perhaps a sign of a tryst that ended in force? Not that your friend would ever do anything like that.† â€Å"And remember how Caroline looked when we saw her, Bonnie?† Meredith said dryly. â€Å"Not the crawling around – I'll bet anything she's walking just fine now. But her face. She had a black eye coming in and a swollen cheek. Perfect for the time frame.† Bonnie felt as if everyone was two steps ahead of her. â€Å"Whattime frame?† â€Å"The night the bug attacked Matt. It was the morning after that that the sheriff called and talked to him. Matt admitted that his mother hadn't seen him all night, and that Neighborhood Watch guy saw Matt drive up to his house and, basically, pass out.† â€Å"That was from the bug poison. He'd just been fighting the malach!† â€Å"We know that. But they'll say he'd just come back from attacking Caroline. Caroline's mother will hardly be fit to testify – you saw how she was. So who's to say that Matt wasn't over at Caroline's? Especially if he was planning assault.† â€Å"We are! We can vouch for him – † Bonnie suddenly stumbled to a halt. â€Å"No, I guess it was after he left that this was supposed to have happened. But, no, this is all wrong!† She took up pacing again. â€Å"I saw one of those bugs up close and it was exactly the way Matt described†¦.† â€Å"And what's left of it now? Nothing. Besides, they'll say that you would sayanything for him.† Bonnie couldn't stand just walking aimlessly around anymore. She had to get to Matt, had to warn him – if they could even find him or Elena. â€Å"I thoughtyou were the one who couldn't wait a minute to find them,† she said accusingly to Meredith. â€Å"I know; I was. But I had to look something up – and besides I wanted one more try at that page only vampires are supposed to read. TheShi no Shi one. But I've tweaked the screen in all the ways I can think of, and if there's something written here, I certainly can't find it.† â€Å"Best not to waste more time on it, then,† Mrs. Flowers said. â€Å"Come get into your jacket, my dear. Shall we take the Yellow Wheeler or not?† For just a moment Bonnie had a wild vision of a horse-drawn vehicle, a sort of Cinderella carriage but not pumpkin-shaped. Then she remembered seeing Mrs. Flowers' ancient Model T – painted yellow – parked inside what must be the old stables that belonged to the boardinghouse. â€Å"We did better when we were on foot than weor Matt did in a car,† said Meredith, giving the computer monitor controls a final vicious click. â€Å"We're more mobile than – oh, my God!I did it! â€Å" â€Å"Did what?† â€Å"The website. Come look at this.† Both Bonnie and Mrs. Flowers came over to the computer. The screen was bright green with thin, faint, dark green writing. â€Å"Howdid you do it?† Bonnie demanded as Meredith bent to get a notebook and pen to copy down what they saw. â€Å"I don't know. I just tweaked the color settings one last time – I'd already tried it for Power Saver, Low Battery, High Resolution, High Contrast, and every combination I could think of.† They stared at the words. Tired of that lapis lazuli? Want to take a vacation in Hawaii? Sick of that same old liquid cuisine? Come and visit Shi no Shi. After that came an ad for the â€Å"Death of Death,† a place where vampires could be cured of their cursed state and become human again. And then there was an address. Just a city road, no mention of what state, or, for that matter, what city. But it was a Clue. â€Å"Stefan didn't mention a road address,† Bonnie said. â€Å"Maybe he didn't want to scare Elena,† Meredith said grimly. â€Å"Or maybe, when he looked at the page, the address wasn't there.† Bonnie shivered. â€Å"Shi no Shi – I don't like the sound of it. And don't laugh at me,† she added to Meredith defensively. â€Å"Remember what Stefan said about trusting my intuition?† â€Å"Nobody's laughing, Bonnie. We need to get to Elena and Matt. What does your intuition tell you about that?† â€Å"It says that we're going to get into trouble, and that Matt and Elena are in trouble already.† â€Å"Funny, because that's just what my judgment tells me.† â€Å"Are we ready, now?† Mrs. Flowers handed out flashlights. Meredith tried hers and found it had a strong, steady beam. â€Å"Let's do it,† she said, automatically flipping off Stefan's lamp again. Bonnie and Mrs. Flowers followed her down the stairs, out of the house, and onto the street they had run from not so long ago. Bonnie's pulse was racing, her ears ready for the slightestwhipwhip sound. But except for the beams of their flashlights, the Old Wood was completely dark and eerily silent. Not even the sound of birdsong broke the moonless night. They plunged in, and in minutes they were lost. Matt woke up on his side and for a moment didn't know where he was. Outdoors. Ground. Picnic? Hiking? Fell asleep? And then he tried to move and agony flared like a geyser of flame, and he remembered everything. That bastard , torturing Elena, he thought. Torturing Elena. It didn't go together, not withDamon . What was it Elena had been saying to him at the end that had made him so angry? The thought nagged at him, but it was just another unanswered question, like Stefan's note in Elena's diary. Matt realized that he could move, if very slowly. He looked around, moving his head by careful increments until he saw Elena, lying near him like a broken doll. He hurt and he was desperately thirsty. She would feel the same way. The first thing was to get her to a hospital; the kind of muscular contractions brought on by that degree of pain could break an arm or even a leg. They were certainly strong enough to cause a sprain or dislocation. Not to mention Damon spraining her wrist. That was what the practical, sensible part of him was thinking. But the question that kept going around in his mind still made him reel in complete astonishment. Hehurt Elena? The way he hurt me? I don't believe it. I knew he was sick, twisted, but I never heard of him hurting the girls. And never, never Elena.Never . But me – if he treats me the way he treats Stefan, he'll kill me. I don't have a vampire's resilience. I have to get Elena out of this before he kills me. I can't leave her alone with him. Instinctively, somehow, he knew that Damon was still around. This was confirmed when he heard some little noise, turned his head too fast, and found himself staring at a blurred and wobbling black boot. The blur and wobble were the result of turning too quickly, but as quickly as he'd turned, he'd suddenly felt his face pressed into the dirt and pine needles on the ground of the clearing. By The Boot. It was on his neck, grinding his face into the dirt now. Matt made a wordless sound of pure fury and grabbed at the leg above the boot with both hands, trying to get a purchase and throw Damon off. But while he could grasp the smooth leather of the boot, moving it in any direction was impossible. It was as if the vampire in the boot could turn himself to iron. Matt could feel the tendons in his throat stand out, his face turn red, and his muscles bunch under his shirt as he made a violent effort to heave Damon off. At last, exhausted, chest heaving, he lay still. In that very same instant, The Boot was lifted. Exactly, he realized, at the moment when he was too tired to lift his head himself. He made a supreme effort and lifted it a few inches. And The Boot caught him under the chin and lifted his face a little higher. â€Å"What a pity,† Damon said with infuriating contempt. â€Å"You humans are so weak. It's no fun to play with you at all.† â€Å"Stefan†¦will come back,† Matt got out, looking up at Damon from where he was unintentionally groveling on the ground. â€Å"Stefan will kill you.† â€Å"Guess what?† Damon said conversationally. â€Å"Your face is all messed up on one side – scratches, you know. You've got sort of a Phantom of the Opera thing going on.† â€Å"If he doesn't, I will. I don't know how, but I will. I swear it.† â€Å"Careful what you promise.† Just as Matt got his arm working enough to prop him up – exactly then, to the millisecond – Damon reached out and grabbed him painfully by a handful of hair, yanking his head up. â€Å"Stefan,† Damon said, looking straight down into Matt's face and forcing Matt to look up at him, no matter how Matt tried to turn his face away, â€Å"was only powerful for a few days because he was drinking the blood of a very powerful spirit who hadn't yet adapted to Earth yet. But look at her now.† He twisted his grip on Matt's hair again, more painfully. â€Å"Some spirit. Lying there in the dirt. Now the Power is back where it should be. Do you understand?Do you – boy?† Matt just stared at Elena. â€Å"How could you do that?† he whispered finally. â€Å"An object lesson in what it means to defy me. And surely you wouldn't want me to be sexist and leave her out?† Damontched . â€Å"You have to keep up with the times.† Matt said nothing. He had to get Elena out of this. â€Å"Worrying about the girl? She's just playing possum now. Hoping I'll ignore her and concentrate on you.† â€Å"You're a liar.† â€Å"So I'll concentrate on you. Speaking of keeping up with the times, you know – except for the scratches and things, you're a fine-looking young man.† At first the words meant nothing to Matt. When he understood them, Matt could feel his blood freeze in his body. â€Å"As a vampire, I can give you an informed and honest opinion. And as a vampire, I'm getting very thirsty. There's you. And then there's the girl who's still pretending to be asleep. I'm sure you can see what I'm getting at.† I believe in you, Elena, Matt thought. He's a liar, and he'll always be a liar. â€Å"Take my blood,† he said wearily. â€Å"Are you sure?† Now Damon sounded solicitous. â€Å"If you resist, the pain is horrible.† â€Å"Just get it over with.† â€Å"Whatever you like.† Damon knelt fluidly on one knee, at the same time twisting his grip on Matt's hair, making Matt wince. The new grip dragged Matt's upper body across Damon's knee, so that his head was thrown back, his neck arched and exposed. In fact Matt had never felt so exposed, so helpless, so vulnerable in his life. â€Å"You can always change your mind,† Damon taunted him. Matt shut his eyes, stubbornly saying nothing. At the last moment, though, as Damon bent with fangs exposed, Matt's fingers almost involuntarily, almost as if it were something his body was doingapart from his mind, clenched themselves into a fist and he suddenly, unpredictably, brought the fist swinging up to deal a violent blow to Damon's temple. But – serpent-quick – Damon reached up and caught the blow almost nonchalantly in an open hand, and held Matt's fingers in a crushing grip – just as razor-sharp fangs opened a vein in Matt's throat and an open mouth fastened on his exposed throat, sucking and drinking the blood that sprayed upward. Elena – awake but unable to move from where she had fallen, unable to make a sound or turn her head – was forced to listen to the entire exchange, forced to hear Matt's groan as his blood was taken against his will, as he resisted to the last. And then she thought of something that, as dizzy and frightened as she was, almost made her pass out in fear.

Civil War Battle of Stones River

The Battle of Stones River was fought December 31, 1862, to January 2, 1863, during the American Civil War (1861-1865). On the Union side,  Major General William S. Rosecrans  led 43,400 men while Confederate  General Braxton Bragg  led 37,712 men. Background In the wake of the Battle of Perryville on October 8, 1862, Confederate forces under General Braxton Bragg began retreating south from Kentucky. Reinforced by troops under Major General Edmund Kirby Smith, Bragg ultimately halted at Murfreesboro, TN. Renaming his command the Army of Tennessee, he began a massive overhaul of its leadership structure. When complete, the army was divided into two corps under Lieutenant Generals William Hardee and Leonidas Polk. The armys cavalry was led by the young Brigadier General Joseph Wheeler. Though a strategic victory for the Union, Perryville resulted in changes on the Union side as well. Displeased with the slowness of Major General Don Carlos Buell actions following the battle, President Abraham Lincoln relieved him in favor of Major General William S. Rosecrans on October 24. Though warned that inaction would lead to his removal, Rosecrans delayed in Nashville as he organized the Army of the Cumberland and re-trained his cavalry forces. Under pressure from Washington, he finally moved out on December 26. Planning for Battle Moving southeast, Rosecrans advanced in three columns led by Major Generals Thomas Crittenden, George H. Thomas, and Alexander McCook. Rosecrans line of advance was intended as a turning movement against Hardee whose corps was at Triune. Recognizing the danger, Bragg ordered Hardee to rejoin him at Murfreesboro. Approaching the town along the Nashville Turnpike and Nashville Chattanooga Railroad, Union forces arrived on the evening of December 29. The next day, Rosecrans men moved into line two miles northwest of Murfreesboro (Map). Much to Braggs surprise, Union forces did not attack on December 30. For December 31, both commanders developed similar plans calling for a strike against the others right flank. While Rosecrans intended to attack after breakfast, Bragg ordered his men to prepare to advance at dawn. For the assault, he shifted the bulk of Hardees corps to the west side of Stones River where it joined with Polks men. One of Hardees divisions, led by Major General John C. Breckinridge, remained on east side to the north of Murfreesboro. The Union plan called for Crittendens men to cross the river and attack the heights held by Breckinridges men. The Armies Clash While Crittenden was in the north, Thomas men held the Union center and McCooks formed the right flank. As his flank was not anchored on any substantial obstacle, McCook took measures, such as burning additional campfires, to deceive the Confederates as to the size of his command. Despite these measures, McCooks men bore the brunt of the first Confederate assault. Beginning around 6:00 AM on December 31, Hardees men moved forward. Catching the enemy by surprise, they overwhelmed Brigadier General Richard W. Johnsons division before Union resistance began to mount. To Johnsons left, Brigadier General Jefferson C. Davis division held briefly before beginning a fighting retreat to the north. Realizing that McCooks men were not capable of halting the Confederate advance, Rosecrans canceled Crittendens attack at 7:00 AM and began flying around the battlefield directing reinforcements south. Hardees assault was followed by a second Confederate attack led by Polk. Moving forward, Polks men met significantly stiffer resistance from Union forces. Having anticipated an early-morning attack Brigadier General Philip H. Sheridan had taken the necessary precautions. Sheridan Hazen Hold Mounting a vigorous defense, Sheridans men turned back numerous charges by the divisions of Major Generals Jones M. Withers and Patrick Cleburne while holding a small cedar forest that became known as the Slaughter Pen. By 10:00 AM, as Sheridans men battled, the bulk of McCooks command had formed a new line near the Nashville Turnpike. In the retreat, 3,000 men and 28 guns had been captured. Around 11:00 AM, Sheridans men began to run out of ammunition and were compelled to fall back. As Hardee moved to exploit the gap, Union troops worked to plug the line. A bit to the north, Confederate attacks against the brigade of Colonel William B. Hazen were repeatedly turned back. The only part of the original Union line to hold, the rocky, wooded area held by Hazens men became known as Hells Half-Acre. As fighting quieted, the new Union line was essentially perpendicular to its original position. Seeking to complete his victory, Bragg ordered part of Breckinridges division, along with units from Polks corps, to renew the attack on Hazen around 4:00 PM. These assaults were repulsed with heavy losses. Final Actions That night, Rosecrans called a council of war to determine a course of action. Deciding to stay and continue the fight, Rosecrans revived his original plan and ordered Brigadier General Horatio Van Cleves division (led by Colonel Samuel Beatty) to cross the river. While both sides remained in place on New Years Day, Rosecrans rear and supply lines were continuously harassed by Wheelers cavalry. Reports from Wheeler suggested that Union forces were preparing to retreat. Content to let them go, Bragg limited his actions on January 2 to ordering Breckinridge to clear Union forces from the high ground north of town. Though reluctant to attack such a strong position, Breckinridge ordered his men forward around 4:00 PM. Striking Crittenden and Beattys position, they succeeded in pushing some of the Union troops back across McFaddens Ford. In doing so, they ran into 45 guns arrayed by Captain John Mendenhall to cover the river. Taking severe losses, Breckinridges advance was checked and a swift Union counterattack by Brigadier General James Negleys division drove them back. Aftermath of the Battle of Stones River The following morning, Rosecrans was re-supplied and reinforced. Convinced that Rosecrans position would only get stronger and fearful that winter rains would raise the river and split his army, Bragg began retreating around 10:00 PM on January 3. His withdraw eventually halted at Tullahoma, TN. Bloodied, Rosecrans stayed at Murfreesboro and did not attempt a pursuit. Deemed a Union victory, the fighting raised Northern spirits following the recent disaster at the Battle of Fredericksburg. Transforming Murfreesboro into a supply base, Rosecrans remained until embarking on the Tullahoma Campaign the following June. The fighting at Stones River cost Rosecrans 1,730 killed, 7,802 wounded, and 3,717 captured/missing. Confederate losses were slightly less, numbering 1,294 killed, 7,945 wounded, and 1,027 captured/missing. Extremely bloody relative to the numbers engaged (43,400 vs. 37,712), Stones River saw the highest percentage of casualties of any major battle during the war. Following the battle, Bragg was severely criticized by other Confederate leaders. He only retained his post due to President Jefferson Davis inability to find a suitable replacement.